Marcel.Dekker.Protective.Relaying.Theory.and.Applications.2nd.ebook-TLFeBOOK

Marcel.Dekker.Protective.Relaying.Theory.and.Applications.2nd.ebook-TLFeBOOK, 04. 01. ELECTRICAL, 01. ...

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Preface
Continuous change in protective relaying has been caused by two different influences. One is the fact that the
requirements imposed by power systems are in a constant state of change, and our understanding of the basic
concepts has sharpened considerably over the years. The other is that the means of implementing the fundamental
concepts of fault location and removal and system restoration are constantly growing more sophisticated.
It is primarily because of these changing constraints that this text has been revised and expanded. It began with
contributions from two giants of the industry, J. Lewis Blackburn and George D. Rockefeller. From the nucleus of
their extensive analyses and writings, and the desire to cover each new contingency with new relaying concepts, this
volume has evolved. New solutions to age-old problems have become apparent as greater experience has been
gained. No problem is without benefit in the solution found.
This new edition weeds out those relaying concepts that have run their course and have been replaced by more
perceptive methods of implementation using new solid-state or microprocessor-based devices.
No single technological breakthrough has been more influential in generating change than the microprocessor.
Initially, the methods of translating a collection of instantaneous samples of sine waves into useful current,
direction, and impedance measurements were not obvious. Diligent analysis and extensive testing allowed these
useful functions to be obtained and to be applied to the desired protective functions. This text attempts to describe,
in the simplest possible terms, the manner in which these digital measurements are accomplished in present-day
devices.
In addition to those already mentioned, huge contributions were made in the development and refinement of the
concepts described in this book by Hung Jen Li, Walter Hinman, Roger Ray, James Crockett, Herb Lensner, Al
Regotti, Fernando Calero, Eric Udren, James Greene, Liancheng Wang, Elmo Price, Solveig Ward, John
McGowan, and Cliff Downs. Some of these names may not be immediately recognizable, but all have made an
impact with their thoughtful, accurate, well-reasoned writings, and they all deserve the gratitude of the industry for
the wealth of knowledge they have contributed to this book. I am keenly aware of the high quality of the technical
offerings of these people, and I am particularly grateful for the warmth and depth of their friendship.
Walter A. Elmore
iii
Contents
Preface
iii
1 Introduction and General Philosophies
1
Revised by W. A. Elmore
1 Introduction
1
2 Classification of Relays
1
2.1
Analog/Digital/Numerical
2
3 Protective Relaying Systems and Their Design
2
3.1 Design Criteria
3
3.2
Factors Influencing Relay Performance
4
3.3
Zones of Protection
4
4 Applying Protective Relays
4
4.1
System Configuration
5
4.2
Existing System Protection and Procedures
5
4.3 Degree of Protection Required
5
4.4
Fault Study
5
4.5 Maximum Loads, Transformer Data, and Impedances
6
5 Relays and Application Data
6
5.1
Switchboard Relays
6
5.2
Rack-Mounted Relays
7
6 Circuit-Breaker Control
8
7 Comparison of Symbols
9
2 Technical Tools of the Relay Engineer: Phasors, Polarity, and Symmetrical Components
11
Revised by W. A. Elmore
1 Introduction
11
2 Phasors
11
2.1
Circuit Diagram Notation for Current and Flux
11
2.2
Circuit Diagram Notation for Voltage
12
v
vi
Contents
2.3
Phasor Notation
12
2.4
Phasor Diagram Notation
13
2.5
Phase Rotation vs. Phasor Rotation
15
3 Polarity in Relay Circuits
15
3.1
Polarity of Transformers
15
3.2
Polarity of Protective Relays
15
3.3
Characteristics of Directional Relays
16
3.4
Connections of Directional Units to Three-Phase Power Systems
17
4 Faults on Power Systems
18
4.1
Fault Types and Causes
18
4.2
Characteristics of Faults
20
5 Symmetrical Components
21
5.1
Basic Concepts
21
5.2
System Neutral
23
5.3
Sequences in a Three-Phase Power System
23
5.4
Sequence Impedances
24
5.5
Sequence Networks
26
5.6
Sequence Network Connections and Voltages
27
5.7 Network Connections for Fault and General Unbalances
28
5.8
Sequence Network Reduction
29
5.9
Example of Fault Calculation on a Loop-Type Power System
32
5.10 Phase Shifts Through Transformer Banks
37
5.11 Fault Evaluations
39
6 Symmetrical Components and Relaying
42
3 Basic Relay Units
43
Revised by W. A. Elmore
1 Introduction
43
2 Electromechanical Units
43
2.1 Magnetic Attraction Units
43
2.2 Magnetic Induction Units
45
2.3 D’Arsonval Units
47
2.4
Thermal Units
47
3 Sequence Networks
47
3.1
Zero Sequence Networks
47
3.2
Composite Sequence Current Networks
48
3.3
Sequence Voltage Networks
49
4 Solid-State Units
50
4.1
Semiconductor Components
50
4.2
Solid-State Logic Units
52
4.3
Principal Logic Units
52
5 Basic Logic Circuits
54
5.1
Fault-Sensing Data Processing Units
54
5.2
Amplification Units
59
5.3
Auxiliary Units
59
6 Integrated Circuits
63
6.1
Operational Amplifier
63
6.2
Basic Operational Amplifier Units
65
6.3
Relay Applications of Operational Amplifier
68
7 Microprocessor Architecture
70
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